University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 15 Editor's Note: Military Aggression and Iran's Environment Editor's Note: Military Aggression and Iran's Environment 1 4 107296 10.22059/jne.2026.107296 FA Afshin Danehkar Department of Environment, Faculty of Natural Resources, University College of Agriculture & Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran. 0000-0002-1392-8778 Journal Article The year 1405 (Solar Hijri, which began in March 2026) started as the military aggression of the United States and Israel against Iran was completing its twenty-first day. While the stated reasons for this military aggression were to curb the country's nuclear and missile capabilities, this military aggression, regardless of its declared motivations, is regarded within the international legal system as a violation of several fundamental principles and rules. These principles, recognized as the cornerstones of international peace and security, are enshrined in the most important instrument of international law: the United Nations Charter. The Prohibition of the Use of Force This principle, articulated in Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, is the most fundamental rule in this context. This Article explicitly states that all members of the United Nations shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state. In other words, any military attack, even if justified by aims such as "regime change," "combating drug trafficking," or "defending human rights," constitutes a clear violation of this Article unless authorized by the Security Council. The exceptions to this principle are only two: Self-Defense: Under Article 51 of the Charter, a state may unilaterally use force only if it is subjected to an "armed attack," and such action must be immediately reported to the Security Council. Security Council Authorization: Under Chapter VII of the Charter, the Security Council may authorize the use of force against a state to maintain or restore international peace and security. In a military aggression, neither of these conditions is typically met; therefore, such an act is a clear instance of "aggression" and a fundamental violation of international law. The Principle of National Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity International law is founded on the principle of the sovereign equality of states, referred to in Article 2(1) of the UN Charter. Sovereignty implies the exclusive right of a state to exercise authority within its territory and to be free from external interference. Military operations conducted within a state's territory without its consent represent the most blatant violation of that state's territorial integrity and political independence. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) in several cases, including Nicaragua v. United States (1986) and Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda (2005), has deemed such actions incompatible with fundamental principles of international law. The Principle of Non-Intervention This principle, a logical consequence of the principle of sovereignty, prohibits any coercive interference by one state in the internal or external affairs of another. In the Nicaragua case, the International Court of Justice identified "the element of coercion" as integral to the very essence of unlawful intervention. A military aggression is manifestly the most blatant form of such coercive and unlawful intervention. Nevertheless, from the perspective of environmental activists and advocates of national land sustainability, it is the environmental catastrophes imposed on the country that are of paramount concern. According to official reports published by specialized bodies, the military aggression by the United States and Israel against Iran during the holy month of Ramadan (dubbed the "Ramadan War") has led to the destruction of vital infrastructure, including oil facilities, energy industries, water resources, marine habitats, protected areas, and environmental monitoring centers. The widespread release of hazardous pollutants—including sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon compounds, particulate matter, and heavy metals—has not only created a crisis for air, water, and soil quality across vast expanses of the country, but their effects have also transcended national borders, impacting regional and global ecosystems. Preliminary estimates indicate that in just the first two weeks of the attacks, over several million tons of greenhouse gases were released into the atmosphere—a figure exceeding the annual carbon footprint of dozens of countries worldwide, with consequences for global climate change that cannot be ignored. The destruction of oil reservoirs, increased emergency flaring, oil contamination in marine areas, and the release of toxic compounds resulting from the explosion of industrial facilities have posed a serious threat to biodiversity, destroyed sensitive habitats, and increased health risks for human populations. These actions stand in clear opposition to established principles of international law, including the Precautionary Principle, the Prevention Principle, and the No-Harm Principle (the principle of not causing transboundary harm). Under Article 55 of the 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions, parties involved in armed conflicts are obliged to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term, and severe damage. This agreement prohibits intentional attacks on the natural environment that would cause widespread, long-term, and severe damage and affect the health of civilian populations. Furthermore, the 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD) prohibits any environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting, or severe effects. Under the principle of international responsibility, states that cause damage to the environment of another state through their unlawful acts are liable to compensate for the damage caused. Sustainable development is realized in peace and security, and military aggressions and warmongering are fundamentally at odds with all of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, this conflict is particularly direct and pronounced with respect to Goal 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions), Goal 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), Goal 15 (Life on Land), Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being), and Goal 1 (No Poverty). Given the evolving concept of "environmental security" in international law and the recognition of the right to a healthy environment as a fundamental human right, any military action resulting in widespread destruction of ecosystems may be considered a case of "ecocide"—a concept that is being recognized and developed as one of the most serious forms of international crime within the global legal system. It is evident that the destructive effects of war are not limited to the duration of the hostilities. Soil contamination, pollution of surface and groundwater resources, coastal and marine ecosystems, and the release of hazardous materials can persist for decades, imposing heavy costs on environmental restoration. The introduction of heavy metals, carcinogenic compounds, and persistent chemicals into natural cycles poses a long-term threat to human health, food security, and economic sustainability. Therefore, the attacks on Iran's vital, industrial, and environmental infrastructure constitute a flagrant violation of international obligations regarding the protection of the environment during armed conflicts. The environmental consequences of these attacks transcend national borders and may affect the environmental security of the Middle East region and even the regional climate system. The international community, the United Nations, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), UNESCO, and other specialized bodies must adopt a firm stance on this event within the framework of their legal and ethical responsibilities. Silence in the face of environmental collapse during armed conflicts may weaken the international legal system and lead to the repetition of environmental catastrophes in other parts of the world. The environment is the common heritage of humanity, and its protection is a responsibility that transcends political borders. The destruction of nature undermines the very foundations of lasting peace, and disregard for the environmental consequences of war constitutes a direct threat to future generations. Science, international cooperation, and respect for the environment can serve as a bridge to lasting peace, and it is hoped that the international community, through its accountability, will prevent the recurrence of such catastrophes. Footnotes: ICJ: International Court of Justice ENMOD: Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals The year 1405 (Solar Hijri, which began in March 2026) started as the military aggression of the United States and Israel against Iran was completing its twenty-first day. While the stated reasons for this military aggression were to curb the country's nuclear and missile capabilities, this military aggression, regardless of its declared motivations, is regarded within the international legal system as a violation of several fundamental principles and rules. These principles, recognized as the cornerstones of international peace and security, are enshrined in the most important instrument of international law: the United Nations Charter. The Prohibition of the Use of Force This principle, articulated in Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, is the most fundamental rule in this context. This Article explicitly states that all members of the United Nations shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state. In other words, any military attack, even if justified by aims such as "regime change," "combating drug trafficking," or "defending human rights," constitutes a clear violation of this Article unless authorized by the Security Council. The exceptions to this principle are only two: Self-Defense: Under Article 51 of the Charter, a state may unilaterally use force only if it is subjected to an "armed attack," and such action must be immediately reported to the Security Council. Security Council Authorization: Under Chapter VII of the Charter, the Security Council may authorize the use of force against a state to maintain or restore international peace and security. In a military aggression, neither of these conditions is typically met; therefore, such an act is a clear instance of "aggression" and a fundamental violation of international law. The Principle of National Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity International law is founded on the principle of the sovereign equality of states, referred to in Article 2(1) of the UN Charter. Sovereignty implies the exclusive right of a state to exercise authority within its territory and to be free from external interference. Military operations conducted within a state's territory without its consent represent the most blatant violation of that state's territorial integrity and political independence. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) in several cases, including Nicaragua v. United States (1986) and Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda (2005), has deemed such actions incompatible with fundamental principles of international law. The Principle of Non-Intervention This principle, a logical consequence of the principle of sovereignty, prohibits any coercive interference by one state in the internal or external affairs of another. In the Nicaragua case, the International Court of Justice identified "the element of coercion" as integral to the very essence of unlawful intervention. A military aggression is manifestly the most blatant form of such coercive and unlawful intervention. Nevertheless, from the perspective of environmental activists and advocates of national land sustainability, it is the environmental catastrophes imposed on the country that are of paramount concern. According to official reports published by specialized bodies, the military aggression by the United States and Israel against Iran during the holy month of Ramadan (dubbed the "Ramadan War") has led to the destruction of vital infrastructure, including oil facilities, energy industries, water resources, marine habitats, protected areas, and environmental monitoring centers. The widespread release of hazardous pollutants—including sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon compounds, particulate matter, and heavy metals—has not only created a crisis for air, water, and soil quality across vast expanses of the country, but their effects have also transcended national borders, impacting regional and global ecosystems. Preliminary estimates indicate that in just the first two weeks of the attacks, over several million tons of greenhouse gases were released into the atmosphere—a figure exceeding the annual carbon footprint of dozens of countries worldwide, with consequences for global climate change that cannot be ignored. The destruction of oil reservoirs, increased emergency flaring, oil contamination in marine areas, and the release of toxic compounds resulting from the explosion of industrial facilities have posed a serious threat to biodiversity, destroyed sensitive habitats, and increased health risks for human populations. These actions stand in clear opposition to established principles of international law, including the Precautionary Principle, the Prevention Principle, and the No-Harm Principle (the principle of not causing transboundary harm). Under Article 55 of the 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions, parties involved in armed conflicts are obliged to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term, and severe damage. This agreement prohibits intentional attacks on the natural environment that would cause widespread, long-term, and severe damage and affect the health of civilian populations. Furthermore, the 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD) prohibits any environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting, or severe effects. Under the principle of international responsibility, states that cause damage to the environment of another state through their unlawful acts are liable to compensate for the damage caused. Sustainable development is realized in peace and security, and military aggressions and warmongering are fundamentally at odds with all of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, this conflict is particularly direct and pronounced with respect to Goal 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions), Goal 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), Goal 15 (Life on Land), Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), Goal 3 (Good Health and Well-being), and Goal 1 (No Poverty). Given the evolving concept of "environmental security" in international law and the recognition of the right to a healthy environment as a fundamental human right, any military action resulting in widespread destruction of ecosystems may be considered a case of "ecocide"—a concept that is being recognized and developed as one of the most serious forms of international crime within the global legal system. It is evident that the destructive effects of war are not limited to the duration of the hostilities. Soil contamination, pollution of surface and groundwater resources, coastal and marine ecosystems, and the release of hazardous materials can persist for decades, imposing heavy costs on environmental restoration. The introduction of heavy metals, carcinogenic compounds, and persistent chemicals into natural cycles poses a long-term threat to human health, food security, and economic sustainability. Therefore, the attacks on Iran's vital, industrial, and environmental infrastructure constitute a flagrant violation of international obligations regarding the protection of the environment during armed conflicts. The environmental consequences of these attacks transcend national borders and may affect the environmental security of the Middle East region and even the regional climate system. The international community, the United Nations, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Court of Justice (ICJ), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), UNESCO, and other specialized bodies must adopt a firm stance on this event within the framework of their legal and ethical responsibilities. Silence in the face of environmental collapse during armed conflicts may weaken the international legal system and lead to the repetition of environmental catastrophes in other parts of the world. The environment is the common heritage of humanity, and its protection is a responsibility that transcends political borders. The destruction of nature undermines the very foundations of lasting peace, and disregard for the environmental consequences of war constitutes a direct threat to future generations. Science, international cooperation, and respect for the environment can serve as a bridge to lasting peace, and it is hoped that the international community, through its accountability, will prevent the recurrence of such catastrophes. Footnotes: ICJ: International Court of Justice ENMOD: Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_107296_8fee27a1e36907cb309414c932998df7.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 The role of urban governance in improving the environment of Tabriz metropolitan city: institutional and cognitive analysis The role of urban governance in improving the environment of Tabriz metropolitan city: institutional and cognitive analysis 1 23 105420 10.22059/jne.2026.408843.2875 FA Hamid Hosseinian Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Ta. C, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. Reza Valizadeh Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Ta. C, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. 0009-0007-0700-9533 Ali Panahi Department of Geography and Urban Planning, Ta. C, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. 0000-0002-0286-4326 Journal Article 2025 12 26 This study, adopting an institutional and cognitive approach, aimed to identify managerial and participatory challenges and propose integrated strategies for improving the urban environment of Tabriz. The research employed a quantitative and descriptive–analytical method, and the statistical population consisted of experts in urban management and environmental planning. Data were collected through a specialized questionnaire and analyzed using SmartPLS within the framework of structural equation modeling, while the Importance–Performance Analysis (IPA) was applied to prioritize intervention areas. To enhance external validity, perceptual findings were compared with official data of Tabriz concerning air quality indices, green space per capita, and citizen participation levels between 2021 and 2024. Results indicated that the construct of urban environmental improvement, with an explanatory power of 65 percent, was mainly influenced by institutional power (path coefficient 0.48, t-value 6.75), managerial efficiency (path coefficient 0.39, t-value 5.23), and participatory governance (path coefficient 0.34, t-value 4.81). The IPA results revealed that air quality and green space development represent the most critical issues with high importance but low performance, while the presence of formal institutions, decision-making transparency, and staff expertise were identified as relative strengths. The final interpretation showed that misalignment between power structures and participatory mechanisms hinders effective environmental governance in Tabriz. Accordingly, strengthening institutional authority, reengineering managerial processes, enhancing genuine citizen participation, and developing smart monitoring technologies can pave the path toward sustainable urban governance. This study, adopting an institutional and cognitive approach, aimed to identify managerial and participatory challenges and propose integrated strategies for improving the urban environment of Tabriz. The research employed a quantitative and descriptive–analytical method, and the statistical population consisted of experts in urban management and environmental planning. Data were collected through a specialized questionnaire and analyzed using SmartPLS within the framework of structural equation modeling, while the Importance–Performance Analysis (IPA) was applied to prioritize intervention areas. To enhance external validity, perceptual findings were compared with official data of Tabriz concerning air quality indices, green space per capita, and citizen participation levels between 2021 and 2024. Results indicated that the construct of urban environmental improvement, with an explanatory power of 65 percent, was mainly influenced by institutional power (path coefficient 0.48, t-value 6.75), managerial efficiency (path coefficient 0.39, t-value 5.23), and participatory governance (path coefficient 0.34, t-value 4.81). The IPA results revealed that air quality and green space development represent the most critical issues with high importance but low performance, while the presence of formal institutions, decision-making transparency, and staff expertise were identified as relative strengths. The final interpretation showed that misalignment between power structures and participatory mechanisms hinders effective environmental governance in Tabriz. Accordingly, strengthening institutional authority, reengineering managerial processes, enhancing genuine citizen participation, and developing smart monitoring technologies can pave the path toward sustainable urban governance.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_105420_0099443c6f86971aa64cce32748bec99.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Local communities, the green engine of development: strategies for participation in wood agriculture in Khuzestan province Local communities, the green engine of development: strategies for participation in wood agriculture in Khuzestan province 25 43 105637 10.22059/jne.2026.405432.2857 FA Behzad Zobidi Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agriculture Engineering and Rural Development, Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan, Mollasani, Iran. 0009-0001-8911-0999 Moslem Savari Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agriculture Engineering and Rural Development, Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan, Mollasani, Iran. 0000-0002-2176-2851 Journal Article 2025 11 12 This research was conducted with the general objective of formulating strategies for the development of local community participation in wood agriculture in Khuzestan Province. In this research, the four SWOT points, namely strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, were first examined using analytical studies and literature on the subject, and then these points were prioritized using the AHP technique. The statistical population of the research included knowledgeable experts and subject matter specialists in relevant organizations who were purposefully selected for the study. The information was processed through the SWOT-AHP technique and using the Expert Choice software. The research findings showed that in the evaluation of the criteria, the threat, weakness, strength and opportunity points were assigned the first to fourth priorities, which indicates the dominance of the risky space over the beneficial space. In addition, in prioritizing strategic areas, the results showed that the first strategy WT means defensive strategy (minimum-minimum), the second strategy ST means contingency strategy (maximum - minimum), the third strategy WO means adaptive strategy (minimum-maximum strategy) and finally the last strategy in the subject under study is the SO strategy means offensive strategy (maximum-maximum). This research was conducted with the general objective of formulating strategies for the development of local community participation in wood agriculture in Khuzestan Province. In this research, the four SWOT points, namely strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, were first examined using analytical studies and literature on the subject, and then these points were prioritized using the AHP technique. The statistical population of the research included knowledgeable experts and subject matter specialists in relevant organizations who were purposefully selected for the study. The information was processed through the SWOT-AHP technique and using the Expert Choice software. The research findings showed that in the evaluation of the criteria, the threat, weakness, strength and opportunity points were assigned the first to fourth priorities, which indicates the dominance of the risky space over the beneficial space. In addition, in prioritizing strategic areas, the results showed that the first strategy WT means defensive strategy (minimum-minimum), the second strategy ST means contingency strategy (maximum - minimum), the third strategy WO means adaptive strategy (minimum-maximum strategy) and finally the last strategy in the subject under study is the SO strategy means offensive strategy (maximum-maximum).

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_105637_fa764e908923f3f69e32a21646f1b78c.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Analyzing the role of detailed space as a medium for interaction with the natural environment in the design of residential complexes with an Iranian architectural approach (Case study: Azarab complex, Arak) Analyzing the role of detailed space as a medium for interaction with the natural environment in the design of residential complexes with an Iranian architectural approach (Case study: Azarab complex, Arak) 45 61 105962 10.22059/jne.2026.408835.2874 FA Maryam Hagilou Department of Architectural Engineering, Ar. C., Islamic Azad University, Arak, Iran. Seyed Mohammadreza Miralaie Department of Architectural Engineering, Ar. C., Islamic Azad University, Arak, Iran. 0000-0003-2462-251X Mahmoud Teymouri Department of Architectural Engineering, Ar. C., Islamic Azad University, Arak, Iran. Journal Article 2025 12 26 The present study aims to analyze the role of transitional spaces in the design of residential complexes following Iranian architectural principles, with an emphasis on interaction with the natural environment. The research is applied in purpose and descriptive–analytical in nature, employing space syntax theory. The Azarab Residential Complex in the city of Arak was selected as the case study. Analyses were conducted using DepthmapX software at two scales: site plan and pilot plan. Visual integration, spatial connectivity, isovist analysis, and agent-based analysis (Gate Count) were used to examine spatial configuration, movement patterns, and visual field quality. The results indicate that transitional spaces with the highest visual integration and connectivity establish the greatest visual and functional contact with open spaces, natural light, and environmental elements. Conversely, spaces with lower integration provide greater privacy and limited interaction with the external environment. Isovist analysis also demonstrates that controlling the field of view in transitional spaces creates a balance between spatial legibility and privacy. Overall, the findings suggest that a transition-oriented spatial organization in the Azarab Residential Complex, based on the spatial logic of Iranian architecture, effectively balances social interaction, movement behavior, and environmental quality. The present study aims to analyze the role of transitional spaces in the design of residential complexes following Iranian architectural principles, with an emphasis on interaction with the natural environment. The research is applied in purpose and descriptive–analytical in nature, employing space syntax theory. The Azarab Residential Complex in the city of Arak was selected as the case study. Analyses were conducted using DepthmapX software at two scales: site plan and pilot plan. Visual integration, spatial connectivity, isovist analysis, and agent-based analysis (Gate Count) were used to examine spatial configuration, movement patterns, and visual field quality. The results indicate that transitional spaces with the highest visual integration and connectivity establish the greatest visual and functional contact with open spaces, natural light, and environmental elements. Conversely, spaces with lower integration provide greater privacy and limited interaction with the external environment. Isovist analysis also demonstrates that controlling the field of view in transitional spaces creates a balance between spatial legibility and privacy. Overall, the findings suggest that a transition-oriented spatial organization in the Azarab Residential Complex, based on the spatial logic of Iranian architecture, effectively balances social interaction, movement behavior, and environmental quality. https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_105962_37ab3008887838d2f78a9c120b13795d.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Alpha and beta species diversity of plants and Noctuidae Moths along an elevational gradient: A Case Study of Bagheran Protected area, south Khorasan, Iran Alpha and beta species diversity of plants and Noctuidae Moths along an elevational gradient: A Case Study of Bagheran Protected area, south Khorasan, Iran 63 83 105424 10.22059/jne.2026.405435.2858 FA Moslem Rostampour Department of Rangeland and Watershed Management and Research Group of Drought and Climate Change, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran. 0000-0001-9052-1958 Mohammad Mahdi Rabieh Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Birjand. 0000-0002-8341-6751 Javad Noei Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Birjand. 0000-0002-1161-1064 Journal Article 2025 11 01 This study aimed to investigate patterns of alpha and beta diversity of plants and Noctuidae moths along an elevational gradient in the Bagheran Protected Area, South Khorasan Province. Field sampling was conducted during 2023–2024 at 27 stations distributed across three elevation classes (1500, 2000, and 2500 m), with three stations and three sampling replicates for plants and Noctuidae moths at each elevation. Alpha diversity indices included taxa richness, Shannon and Simpson diversity indices, evenness, dominance, and the Menhinick and Margalef indices, whereas beta diversity was assessed using the Whittaker, Cody, and Harrison indices, as well as Jaccard and Sørensen dissimilarity measures. Permutation tests indicated that taxa richness differed marginally between plants (48 taxa) and Noctuidae moths (42 taxa) (P= 0.0525), whereas the number of individuals differed significantly (plants: 512; Noctuidae moths: 1046; P= 0.0001). Noctuidae moths exhibited higher species diversity and evenness than plants, whereas plant communities showed greater dominance by indicator species (P= 0.0001). The highest species richness and diversity for both groups occurred at 2000 m elevation, and species compositional heterogeneity was greater in plants than in Noctuidae moths. The Jaccard and Sørensen indices revealed increasing compositional dissimilarity with increasing elevational distance. Venn diagrams further showed that the highest number of unique species for both plants and Noctuidae moths occurred at 2000 m, while the lowest number was observed at 2500 m. Overall, the results indicate that elevation plays a significant role in shaping plant and animal community structure, with a stronger and more pronounced effect on plant communities. This study aimed to investigate patterns of alpha and beta diversity of plants and Noctuidae moths along an elevational gradient in the Bagheran Protected Area, South Khorasan Province. Field sampling was conducted during 2023–2024 at 27 stations distributed across three elevation classes (1500, 2000, and 2500 m), with three stations and three sampling replicates for plants and Noctuidae moths at each elevation. Alpha diversity indices included taxa richness, Shannon and Simpson diversity indices, evenness, dominance, and the Menhinick and Margalef indices, whereas beta diversity was assessed using the Whittaker, Cody, and Harrison indices, as well as Jaccard and Sørensen dissimilarity measures. Permutation tests indicated that taxa richness differed marginally between plants (48 taxa) and Noctuidae moths (42 taxa) (P= 0.0525), whereas the number of individuals differed significantly (plants: 512; Noctuidae moths: 1046; P= 0.0001). Noctuidae moths exhibited higher species diversity and evenness than plants, whereas plant communities showed greater dominance by indicator species (P= 0.0001). The highest species richness and diversity for both groups occurred at 2000 m elevation, and species compositional heterogeneity was greater in plants than in Noctuidae moths. The Jaccard and Sørensen indices revealed increasing compositional dissimilarity with increasing elevational distance. Venn diagrams further showed that the highest number of unique species for both plants and Noctuidae moths occurred at 2000 m, while the lowest number was observed at 2500 m. Overall, the results indicate that elevation plays a significant role in shaping plant and animal community structure, with a stronger and more pronounced effect on plant communities.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_105424_0965b567e20ce92c17eed642f116dc53.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Identification and prioritization of threats impacting biodiversity in Tandoureh national park using the fuzzy Delphi-TOPSIS method Identification and prioritization of threats impacting biodiversity in Tandoureh national park using the fuzzy Delphi-TOPSIS method 85 106 105532 10.22059/jne.2026.402286.2842 FA Golnaz Zeinalpour PhD student in Environmental Science and Engineering, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran 0009-0007-4712-3170 Mir Mehrdad Mirsanjari Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran. 0000-0002-5968-4422 Alireza Ildoromi Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran. 0000-0002-8341-2574 Iman Saeedi Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran. 0000-0001-8749-3829 Journal Article 2025 09 13 Biodiversity is the precious heritage of the earth, every species that is lost is part of the puzzle of life that is destroyed forever. The process of losing species richness around the world has accelerated greatly in recent years. Maintaining the balance of the earth and its survival for future generations is one of the most important tasks of today's generation. Determining a network of protected areas across the globe and protecting and preserving their biodiversity is one of the most important measures in order to continue the survival of the earth. Tandoureh Protected Area, as one of the most important wildlife habitats in Iran, is affected by various environmental and human factors that threaten its biodiversity. In the present study, in order to identify these factors, the consensus of environmental experts was used in the form of a questionnaire technique and the fuzzy Delphi method, and the TOPSIS method was used for prioritization. In the fuzzy Delphi method, 20 threatening factors were introduced in the form of a questionnaire and individuals were asked to add suggested items. 14 factors out of 20 threatening factors to biodiversity were identified by the experts as the most important threats to the region. The prioritization of the impact of these factors under several stages was determined by the TOPSIS method. Finally, the fire factor with a proximity coefficient of 0.7121 was identified as the most important factor, and the wildlife road accidents factor with a proximity coefficient of zero was identified as the least important factor affecting the biodiversity of the Tandoore Protected Area. Biodiversity is the precious heritage of the earth, every species that is lost is part of the puzzle of life that is destroyed forever. The process of losing species richness around the world has accelerated greatly in recent years. Maintaining the balance of the earth and its survival for future generations is one of the most important tasks of today's generation. Determining a network of protected areas across the globe and protecting and preserving their biodiversity is one of the most important measures in order to continue the survival of the earth. Tandoureh Protected Area, as one of the most important wildlife habitats in Iran, is affected by various environmental and human factors that threaten its biodiversity. In the present study, in order to identify these factors, the consensus of environmental experts was used in the form of a questionnaire technique and the fuzzy Delphi method, and the TOPSIS method was used for prioritization. In the fuzzy Delphi method, 20 threatening factors were introduced in the form of a questionnaire and individuals were asked to add suggested items. 14 factors out of 20 threatening factors to biodiversity were identified by the experts as the most important threats to the region. The prioritization of the impact of these factors under several stages was determined by the TOPSIS method. Finally, the fire factor with a proximity coefficient of 0.7121 was identified as the most important factor, and the wildlife road accidents factor with a proximity coefficient of zero was identified as the least important factor affecting the biodiversity of the Tandoore Protected Area.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_105532_dfcf1c8d76f621fe372715d92b6bcd13.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 The effects of soil disturbance caused by timber skidding operations on the herbaceous vegetation of Hyrcanian forests (case study: Kheyrud educational and research forest) The effects of soil disturbance caused by timber skidding operations on the herbaceous vegetation of Hyrcanian forests (case study: Kheyrud educational and research forest) 107 126 106317 10.22059/jne.2026.409321.2880 FA Ali Babaei Ahmadabad Department of Forestry and Forest Economics, Faculty of Natural Resources, University College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran. 0009-0003-7047-8720 Meghdad Jourgholami Department of Forestry and Forest Economics, Faculty of Natural Resources, University College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran. 0000-0003-3676-278X Journal Article 2026 01 02 Mechanized skidding is among the most significant disturbance factors in Hyrcanian forests, causing substantial physical and biological alterations to the forest floor. This study examines the mid-term impacts of skidding on forest floor herbaceous vegetation. The research was conducted in 2025 in the Kheyrud Educational and Research Forest. Four compartments with time since harvest (7, 10, 15, and 20 years) were selected, and within each compartment, sampling plots were established on skid trails with different traffic intensities (low, medium, high, and landing areas) as well as in control areas. Soil physical properties (bulk density, penetration resistance, and soil porosity percentage), litter depth and quality, light intensity, and herbaceous vegetation cover were measured. Simpson's, Shannon-Wiener, Evenness, and Margalef biodiversity indices were also calculated. The results demonstrated that soil compaction resulting from skidder traffic significantly increased soil bulk density (62%) and penetration resistance, while decreasing soil porosity (49%), as well as litter depth and quality. These physical alterations to the soil and litter, coupled with a 4- to 5-fold increase in received light, led to changes in species composition and the structure of the herbaceous community. The density of herbaceous plants on skid trails was, on average, nearly twice that of the control areas; however, this increase was driven by the dominance of pioneer and light-demanding species. The results indicated that vegetation is strongly influenced by skidding operations, and that changes in light availability, litter characteristics, and soil compaction are key factors governing alterations in forest floor herbaceous vegetation. Mechanized skidding is among the most significant disturbance factors in Hyrcanian forests, causing substantial physical and biological alterations to the forest floor. This study examines the mid-term impacts of skidding on forest floor herbaceous vegetation. The research was conducted in 2025 in the Kheyrud Educational and Research Forest. Four compartments with time since harvest (7, 10, 15, and 20 years) were selected, and within each compartment, sampling plots were established on skid trails with different traffic intensities (low, medium, high, and landing areas) as well as in control areas. Soil physical properties (bulk density, penetration resistance, and soil porosity percentage), litter depth and quality, light intensity, and herbaceous vegetation cover were measured. Simpson's, Shannon-Wiener, Evenness, and Margalef biodiversity indices were also calculated. The results demonstrated that soil compaction resulting from skidder traffic significantly increased soil bulk density (62%) and penetration resistance, while decreasing soil porosity (49%), as well as litter depth and quality. These physical alterations to the soil and litter, coupled with a 4- to 5-fold increase in received light, led to changes in species composition and the structure of the herbaceous community. The density of herbaceous plants on skid trails was, on average, nearly twice that of the control areas; however, this increase was driven by the dominance of pioneer and light-demanding species. The results indicated that vegetation is strongly influenced by skidding operations, and that changes in light availability, litter characteristics, and soil compaction are key factors governing alterations in forest floor herbaceous vegetation.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_106317_fdf03160951cfad639065ba89f9f9c27.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Evaluating the degree of urban sprawl based on smart growth density criteria using the (BWM) method: A study of the city of Khoy Evaluating the degree of urban sprawl based on smart growth density criteria using the (BWM) method: A study of the city of Khoy 127 148 105443 10.22059/jne.2026.408832.2873 FA Farideh Vahedi PhD student in Urban Planning, Ta. C. Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran., Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. Hassan Sattari Sarbangholi Department of Urban Planning, Ta, C, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. 0000-0001-7556-3199 Akbar Abdollahzadeh Taraf Department of Urban Planning, Ta, C, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. 0000-0002-1078-2961 Journal Article 2025 11 26 Urban sprawl is one of the major challenges facing medium-sized cities in Iran, with direct implications for spatial efficiency, accessibility patterns, and environmental sustainability. Khoy, as one of the most populous cities in West Azerbaijan Province, has experienced horizontal expansion, increasing land consumption, and declining spatial cohesion in recent years. The aim of this study is to assess the level of urban sprawl in Khoy based on smart growth density criteria and to identify the relative contribution of influencing factors. This research is applied in purpose and descriptive–analytical in nature, adopting a mixed qualitative–quantitative approach. In the first stage, spatial–temporal analysis of land-use maps across multiple time periods was conducted to verify the existence and spatial pattern of urban sprawl in Khoy. In the next stage, ten key components within five analytical dimensions were identified and weighted using the Best–Worst Method (BWM) based on the judgments of 18 experts in urban planning, environmental studies, and transportation. The weighting results indicate that access to services (weight= 0.18), population density (weight= 0.15), and land-use diversity (weight= 0.13) are the most influential factors explaining urban sprawl in Khoy. Subsequently, the actual values of the indicators at the city scale were normalized and integrated with the derived weights. The final urban sprawl index was calculated as 0.571, indicating that Khoy is positioned at a moderate to relatively high level of urban sprawl. The findings reveal that Khoy’s spatial structure is influenced more by density patterns, land-use distribution, and accessibility than by environmental consequences alone. Accordingly, promoting infill development, enhancing spatial cohesion, and targeted regeneration of inefficient urban fabrics can play a significant role in mitigating urban sprawl in the city of Khoy. Urban sprawl is one of the major challenges facing medium-sized cities in Iran, with direct implications for spatial efficiency, accessibility patterns, and environmental sustainability. Khoy, as one of the most populous cities in West Azerbaijan Province, has experienced horizontal expansion, increasing land consumption, and declining spatial cohesion in recent years. The aim of this study is to assess the level of urban sprawl in Khoy based on smart growth density criteria and to identify the relative contribution of influencing factors. This research is applied in purpose and descriptive–analytical in nature, adopting a mixed qualitative–quantitative approach. In the first stage, spatial–temporal analysis of land-use maps across multiple time periods was conducted to verify the existence and spatial pattern of urban sprawl in Khoy. In the next stage, ten key components within five analytical dimensions were identified and weighted using the Best–Worst Method (BWM) based on the judgments of 18 experts in urban planning, environmental studies, and transportation. The weighting results indicate that access to services (weight= 0.18), population density (weight= 0.15), and land-use diversity (weight= 0.13) are the most influential factors explaining urban sprawl in Khoy. Subsequently, the actual values of the indicators at the city scale were normalized and integrated with the derived weights. The final urban sprawl index was calculated as 0.571, indicating that Khoy is positioned at a moderate to relatively high level of urban sprawl. The findings reveal that Khoy’s spatial structure is influenced more by density patterns, land-use distribution, and accessibility than by environmental consequences alone. Accordingly, promoting infill development, enhancing spatial cohesion, and targeted regeneration of inefficient urban fabrics can play a significant role in mitigating urban sprawl in the city of Khoy.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_105443_0939fce6dc3096420aded5fa5457e59e.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Factors affecting the intensity of human-brown bear conflict in northern Zagros, Iran Factors affecting the intensity of human-brown bear conflict in northern Zagros, Iran 149 167 106394 10.22059/jne.2026.410345.2887 FA Mohammad Reza Ashrafzadeh Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources and Earth Sciences, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran. 0000-0003-2968-906X Alireza Mohammadi Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Jiroft, Jiroft, Iran. 0000-0003-3701-6455 Journal Article 2026 01 31 Human-large carnivore conflict, particularly involving the brown bear (Ursus arctos), represents a complex conservation challenge that seriously threatens both species survival and rural livelihoods in the Northern Zagros. Utilizing a social network analysis approach, this study systematically examined the causal-relational structure of conflict drivers and participatory management strategies based on the perspectives of 183 local stakeholders in Kermanshah Province. Network analysis revealed that "bear provocation" and "sudden encounters" function as central nodes with the highest degree and betweenness centrality, playing a pivotal role in escalating conflicts. Drought, habitat destruction, and insufficient local knowledge were identified as underlying factors that reinforce the conflict network. From the local community's viewpoint, "compensation payment" and "education" emerged as the strategies with the greatest centrality and influence within the conflict mitigation network, whereas punitive measures such as lethal removal garnered the least acceptance. These findings underscore the necessity for designing an integrated management model based on three pillars: "community empowerment," "institutionalizing a compensation system," and "implementing non-lethal preventive measures. Integrating local and scientific knowledge through participatory programs can not only mitigate conflicts but also foster sustainable coexistence and effective conservation of this umbrella species in the ecosystems of the Northern Zagros. Human-large carnivore conflict, particularly involving the brown bear (Ursus arctos), represents a complex conservation challenge that seriously threatens both species survival and rural livelihoods in the Northern Zagros. Utilizing a social network analysis approach, this study systematically examined the causal-relational structure of conflict drivers and participatory management strategies based on the perspectives of 183 local stakeholders in Kermanshah Province. Network analysis revealed that "bear provocation" and "sudden encounters" function as central nodes with the highest degree and betweenness centrality, playing a pivotal role in escalating conflicts. Drought, habitat destruction, and insufficient local knowledge were identified as underlying factors that reinforce the conflict network. From the local community's viewpoint, "compensation payment" and "education" emerged as the strategies with the greatest centrality and influence within the conflict mitigation network, whereas punitive measures such as lethal removal garnered the least acceptance. These findings underscore the necessity for designing an integrated management model based on three pillars: "community empowerment," "institutionalizing a compensation system," and "implementing non-lethal preventive measures. Integrating local and scientific knowledge through participatory programs can not only mitigate conflicts but also foster sustainable coexistence and effective conservation of this umbrella species in the ecosystems of the Northern Zagros.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_106394_da03c56706e8bd70decfb15fff7d5d3f.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Integrated vulnerability-resilience assessment in coupled systems: a novel approach in spatial model development Integrated vulnerability-resilience assessment in coupled systems: a novel approach in spatial model development 169 188 100442 10.22059/jne.2025.387869.2743 FA Masoumeh Heydari Department of Natural Environment, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran. 0009-0002-1959-8420 Afshin Danehkar Department of Natural Environment, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran. 0000-0002-1392-8778 Davood Mafi-Gholami Department of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources and Earth Sciences, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran. 0000-0003-4431-5381 Journal Article 2024 12 30 Spatial land management in response to environmental hazards and climate change requires an integrated assessment of vulnerability and resilience in social-ecological systems, as well as understanding the dynamic characteristics of these systems. Despite the existence of numerous frameworks and conceptual models in vulnerability assessment, the lack of comprehensive models in analyzing coupled systems' responses to multiple hazards and the interaction of influential components has created limitations in spatial land management. Furthermore, some significant scientific ambiguities and gaps in research related to this field remain unresolved. A review of resilience history indicates that more than several decades have passed since the introduction of the panarchy cycle, and during this period, despite multiple applications of this concept, its use in vulnerability-resilience models has largely remained in the form of descriptive and abstract concepts. By extending the panarchy cycle theory to threatened coupled systems, it can be inferred that land planning is a dynamic process lacking static characteristics. In fact, coupled systems have a dynamic mechanism that continuously goes through four stages of "exploitation," "conservation," "release," and "reorganization." In this research, by integrating hazard-risk and ecological resilience approaches, comprehensive conceptual models have been developed for integrated vulnerability-resilience assessment of coupled systems. Additionally, to visualize complex interactions between components of coupled systems, models with multidimensional and nonlinear processes and structures in relation to stresses have been utilized. The obtained results provide significant considerations in sustainable land management, particularly in critical conditions where planners are required to make immediate decisions to strengthen resilience at spatial-temporal critical points. Spatial land management in response to environmental hazards and climate change requires an integrated assessment of vulnerability and resilience in social-ecological systems, as well as understanding the dynamic characteristics of these systems. Despite the existence of numerous frameworks and conceptual models in vulnerability assessment, the lack of comprehensive models in analyzing coupled systems' responses to multiple hazards and the interaction of influential components has created limitations in spatial land management. Furthermore, some significant scientific ambiguities and gaps in research related to this field remain unresolved. A review of resilience history indicates that more than several decades have passed since the introduction of the panarchy cycle, and during this period, despite multiple applications of this concept, its use in vulnerability-resilience models has largely remained in the form of descriptive and abstract concepts. By extending the panarchy cycle theory to threatened coupled systems, it can be inferred that land planning is a dynamic process lacking static characteristics. In fact, coupled systems have a dynamic mechanism that continuously goes through four stages of "exploitation," "conservation," "release," and "reorganization." In this research, by integrating hazard-risk and ecological resilience approaches, comprehensive conceptual models have been developed for integrated vulnerability-resilience assessment of coupled systems. Additionally, to visualize complex interactions between components of coupled systems, models with multidimensional and nonlinear processes and structures in relation to stresses have been utilized. The obtained results provide significant considerations in sustainable land management, particularly in critical conditions where planners are required to make immediate decisions to strengthen resilience at spatial-temporal critical points.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_100442_6912d2c14ccb33bd784493fe3a41d500.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 05 22 Forecasting the urban spatial expansion of Yasouj and the change in uses of its suburbs Forecasting the urban spatial expansion of Yasouj and the change in uses of its suburbs 189 208 106628 10.22059/jne.2026.411363.2895 FA Vajihe Ghorbannia Kheybari Department of Nature Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran. 0000-0003-0644-9266 Ellahe Azimi Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran. 0009-0006-6727-6986 Journal Article 2026 02 27 Uncontrolled and scattered urban development in growing cities has created serious challenges for environmental sustainability. This research was conducted to predict the spatial development of Yasouj city and the changes in its surrounding land uses from 2001 to 2037. Landsat 7 satellite data were used for 2001 and 2013, and Landsat 8 data for 2025. After performing radiometric and atmospheric corrections on the images using ENVI 5.6 software, supervised classification was performed using the Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) method, and its accuracy was validated. To simulate and predict changes, the CA-Markov model was used within the TerrSet 2020 software environment. The results of this study showed that during the studied period, the area of residential and agricultural lands increased. The classification results for all three studied years had acceptable accuracy; therefore, it can be claimed that the model possesses acceptable spatial and quantitative accuracy. The growth of residential and agricultural areas primarily occurred at the expense of the quantitative and qualitative reduction of forests and fertile rangelands surrounding the city. The prediction map for the year 2037 shows an intensification of urban sprawl, extensive expansion of scattered settlements, and further weakening of natural land covers. The findings highlight the necessity of revising urban development patterns in Yasouj and adopting approaches based on compact growth, defining urban growth boundaries, and preserving green belts to ensure a balance between development needs and ecological sustainability. Therefore, it is recommended to utilize the inner capacity of the city (infill development) instead of urban growth in peripheral and suburban areas. Uncontrolled and scattered urban development in growing cities has created serious challenges for environmental sustainability. This research was conducted to predict the spatial development of Yasouj city and the changes in its surrounding land uses from 2001 to 2037. Landsat 7 satellite data were used for 2001 and 2013, and Landsat 8 data for 2025. After performing radiometric and atmospheric corrections on the images using ENVI 5.6 software, supervised classification was performed using the Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) method, and its accuracy was validated. To simulate and predict changes, the CA-Markov model was used within the TerrSet 2020 software environment. The results of this study showed that during the studied period, the area of residential and agricultural lands increased. The classification results for all three studied years had acceptable accuracy; therefore, it can be claimed that the model possesses acceptable spatial and quantitative accuracy. The growth of residential and agricultural areas primarily occurred at the expense of the quantitative and qualitative reduction of forests and fertile rangelands surrounding the city. The prediction map for the year 2037 shows an intensification of urban sprawl, extensive expansion of scattered settlements, and further weakening of natural land covers. The findings highlight the necessity of revising urban development patterns in Yasouj and adopting approaches based on compact growth, defining urban growth boundaries, and preserving green belts to ensure a balance between development needs and ecological sustainability. Therefore, it is recommended to utilize the inner capacity of the city (infill development) instead of urban growth in peripheral and suburban areas.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_106628_f21ef0382e0f9aaa9cce9a2bb25717e1.pdf

University of Tehran Journal of Natural Environment 2008-7764 79 1 2026 06 10 Spatial mapping of distribution and examination of factors associated with the formation of historical bridges, Case study: East Azerbaijan Province Spatial mapping of distribution and examination of factors associated with the formation of historical bridges, Case study: East Azerbaijan Province 209 228 105325 10.22059/jne.2025.407802.2868 FA Tala Yaghoobi Department of Architecture, Ta. C. Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. Shabnam Akbari Namdar Department of Architecture, Ta. C. Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. 0000-0003-4037-2944 Nasim Najafgholipour Kalantari Department of Architecture, Ta. C. Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran. Journal Article 2025 10 09 This study aims to analyze the spatial distribution pattern of historical bridges in East Azerbaijan Province and to examine their spatial alignment with environmental, human, historical, and cultural factors. The research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach based on spatial analysis within a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment. To this end, the geographic locations of twenty historical bridges were extracted and integrated with environmental layers including precipitation, slope, distance from rivers, landform types, land use, and transportation networks. Global and Local Moran’s I (LISA) statistics were applied to examine the spatial distribution pattern of bridges, while OLS, GWR, and MGWR spatial regression models were employed to analyze spatial heterogeneity in the relationships. The results indicate that the distribution of historical bridges is non-random and organized into distinct spatial clusters. Furthermore, the relationships between bridges and contextual factors are not spatially uniform and vary according to geographic location. Overall, the findings suggest that the spatial distribution of historical bridges reflects a coherent spatial logic associated with the natural setting and historical transportation networks. This study aims to analyze the spatial distribution pattern of historical bridges in East Azerbaijan Province and to examine their spatial alignment with environmental, human, historical, and cultural factors. The research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach based on spatial analysis within a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment. To this end, the geographic locations of twenty historical bridges were extracted and integrated with environmental layers including precipitation, slope, distance from rivers, landform types, land use, and transportation networks. Global and Local Moran’s I (LISA) statistics were applied to examine the spatial distribution pattern of bridges, while OLS, GWR, and MGWR spatial regression models were employed to analyze spatial heterogeneity in the relationships. The results indicate that the distribution of historical bridges is non-random and organized into distinct spatial clusters. Furthermore, the relationships between bridges and contextual factors are not spatially uniform and vary according to geographic location. Overall, the findings suggest that the spatial distribution of historical bridges reflects a coherent spatial logic associated with the natural setting and historical transportation networks.

https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_105325_a13aaa0df9045c205e82ed3b95d18c10.pdf